Enhanced oil and gas extraction techniques such as hydraulic fracturing produce significant amounts of wastewater containing undesirable contaminants including, for example, emulsified oils, polymers, suspended solids, divalent ions, and bacteria and other microbes. Concerns about the environmental and health effects of contaminated wastewaters drive interest in the development of more efficient, effective, and economical processes and materials for the treatment of wastewater to remove undesirable contaminants. Additionally, water conservation concerns provide further interest in developing enhanced wastewater treatment products and processes that will enable the efficient, effective, and economical reuse of wastewater in oil and gas extraction operations, such as hydraulic fracturing, and other industrial operations.